Castor oil cake
The utilization of castor oil cake for ruminants has been extensively studied in castor oil-producing countries, particularly Brazil and India. Those trials have tested various detoxification processes or compared detoxified and non-detoxified castor oil cakes. The general assessment of detoxified castor oil cake is that it has a good nutritive value and can be a valuable protein source that can partly replace soybean meal, notably in beef cattle, sheep and goats. In several studies, detoxified castor oil cakes contained residual ricin below the toxic threshold for ruminants (3.06 mg/kg body weight) and including up to 20% detoxified cake in ruminant diets was found both safe and suitable for performance.
The composition of castor oil cake should be taken into account when feeding livestock due to the high variability in its fibre content. Fibre-rich, and particularly lignin-rich castor oil cake can reduce the digestibility of the diet if the diet is not balanced relative to fibre (Cobianchi et al., 2012; Nicory et al., 2015a; Palmieri et al., 2016; Borja et al., 2017; Matos et al., 2018). Castor oil cake was found a good protein source when the diet was properly balanced ( Oliveira et al., 2010; Gionbelli et al., 2014; Furtado et al., 2015; Alves et al., 2016; Menezes et al., 2016; Souza et al., 2016; Lima et al., 2020). Protein degradability is lower than that of soybean meal and diets must take this aspect into account so that they do not hinder rumen bacteria development by availability of soluble nitrogen, and consequently diet digestibility.
Digestibility
Effective DM degradability of castor oil cake were 55% (untreated) and 51% (detoxified with CaO), which is low compared to 77% for soybean meal (Diniz et al., 2011). NDF degradability was also low (16% for untreated cake and 18% for detoxified cake) compared to 54% for soybean meal (Oliveira et al., 2010). Protein degradability for untreated cake ranged from 62-63% (Oliveira et al., 2010) to 72% (Diniz et al., 2011) and decreased to 57-58% after CaO detoxification. Again, those values are lower than the values (66-71%) reported in those experiments for soybean meal.
Cattle
Dairy cattle
Dairy cows fed with 3 to 15% (dietary level) of detoxified castor oil cake, had variable DM intake, DM digestibility, and milk yield. In some trials those parameters decreased at 8 to 15% levels (Cobianchi et al., 2012; Porto et al., 2016) but in others there was no effect up to 12.5% (Souza et al., 2016).
Feeding trials with dairy cattle
DCC: detoxified castor oil cake; SBM: soybean meal; DMI: dry matter intake; DMD: dry matter digestibility; MY: milk yied
Country |
Breed |
Detoxification process |
Experiment |
Inclusion rate |
Results |
Reference |
Pakistan |
Mehsani Buffalo |
40 g/kg Lime, extrusion cooking |
DCC included at 10% into the concentrate, 75 d |
100 g/kg conc. |
No effects on total intake, milk yield and composition; |
Bhagwat et al., 2012 |
Brazil |
Holstein (540 kg; 100 DIM; 20.3 kg MY |
60 g/kg CaO 12h and 48h sun-dried |
DCC replaced SBM in total mixed ration, 21 d |
0, 49.6, 99.3 or 148.8 g/kg diet |
total DMI decreases with the two higher levels (15.4 vs 16.8 kg/d/c); DMD decreases with 49.6 and upper levels from 67.3% to 59.2%; MY and protein content decrease with the two higher levels, but not fat. |
Cobianchi et al., 2012 |
Brazil |
Holstein x Zebu (509 kg; 100 DIM; 25 kg MY |
60 g Ca(OH)2, and 8h 60°C |
DCC replaced SBM in concentrate with a diet of 56% concentrate and 44% forage (Brachiaria brizantha pasture), 21 d |
0, 7.6, 15 or 22.3 g/kg conc. |
No differences in DMI, DMD, MY, milk composition and grazing behavior |
Souza et al., 2016; Souza et al., 2017 |
Brazil |
Holstein x Zebu (465 kg; 100 DIM; 15 kg MY |
60 g/kg CaO 12h and sun-dried |
DCC replace SBM in concentrate with a diet of 56% concentrate and 44% forage (Brachiaria decumbens pasture), 84 d |
0, 7.6, 15 or 22.3 g/kg conc. |
DMI decreases with the two higher levels from 13.5 kg to 11.9; but no change in grazing behaviour |
Porto et al., 2016 |
Beef cattle and growing cattle
With fattening or growing cattle, the full substitution of soybean meal with castor oil cake did not alter average daily weight gain except when the level of castor oil cake was 50% or more into the concentrate. Generally, DMI wa s not modified except when the forage is of high quality (> protein 15% DM).
Feeding trials with beef cattle and growing cattle
DCC: detoxified castor oil cake; UCC: untreated castor oil cake; SBM: soybean meal; TMR: total mixed ration; DMI: dry matter intake; DMD: dry matter digestibility; MY: milk yied; ADG: average daily gain
Country |
Breed |
Detoxification process |
Experiment |
Inclusion rate |
Results |
Reference |
Brazil |
Crossbred Zebu (360 kg) |
60 g/kg CaO, 12h and 48h sun-dried |
DCC replaced 0 to 100% of SBM in a TMR based on maize silage |
0, 30.5, 60.9, 91.4 g/kg TMR |
No difference in DMI; ADG tends to increase with DCC level; carcass fat% decreases with DCC level whereas bone% increases and muscle does not change ; carcass yield in relation to body weight decreases with increasing level of DCC (from 54 to 51%); No difference was observed on DMD or CP digestibility of the diet |
Diniz et al., 2010; Diniz et al., 2011 |
Brazil |
Crossbred Zebu (360 kg) |
No treatment |
UCC replaced 100% of SBM in a TMR based on maize silage |
91.4 g/kg TMR |
No difference in DMI; ADG tends to increase with UCC level; carcass fat% is lower with UCC whereas bone% is higher and muscle does not change; carcass yield in relation to body weight is lower COC than with SBM (52% vs 54%); No difference was observed on DMD or CP digestibility of the diet |
Diniz et al., 2010; Diniz et al., 2011 |
Brazil |
Heifer (Nellore and crossbred zebu), 210 kg |
60 g/kg CaO |
DCC replaced 0 to 100% of SBM in a concentrate offered with Brachiaria decumbens pasture |
0 to 50% into the concentrate |
No difference in the DMI or ADG up to 67% replacement; with 100% replacement, both decrease; DMD and CP digestibility decrease with DCC level. |
Barros et al., 2011 |
Brazil |
Heifers (Holstein × Zebu crossbred, 257 kg) |
60 g Ca(OH)2 |
DCC replacde 0 to 100% of SBM in a concentrate offered (700g/100 kg BW) with Brachiaria decumbens pasture |
0 to 27.7% into the concentrate |
Pasture DMI and DMD and CP digestibility decrease with increasing level of DCC particularly for the higher level; no effects on ADG or carcass dressing; fat cover was much lower with the higher level of DCC |
Matos et al., 2018 |
Sheep
In most trials, detoxified castor oil cake was included into a total mixed ration up to 30% with a proportion of concentrate ranging from 25 to 60% and low forage quality (less than 10% of crude protein). Castor oil cake did not alter DM intake and DM digestibility, but average daily weight gain decreased except in two trials (Borja et al., 2017; Pompeu et al., 2012). Carcass yield (hot or cold) and characteristics were either unchanged (Gionbelli et al., 2014; Gowda et al., 2009) or lower compared to those obtained with soybean meal (Borja et al., 2017; Menezes et al., 2016; Alves et al., 2016; Pompeu et al., 2012). Detoxified castor oil cake replacing soybean meal into a concentrate (14.5%) and offered to ewes fed with Guinea grass did not alter fertility, prolificacy, lamb weight or lamb growth (Silva et al., 2014). Studies did not report adverse effects of detoxified castor oil cake on animal health. Metabolite, liver or renal enzymes confirm these observations. In conclusion, detoxified castor oil cake can be included into a diet for fattening animals up to 20% (on DM basis) with no negative effects.
Feeding trials with sheep
DCC: detoxified castor oil cake; UCC: untreated castor oil cake; SBM: soybean meal; TMR: total mixed ration; DMI: dry matter intake; DMD: dry matter digestibility; MY: milk yied; ADG: average daily gain
Country |
Breed |
Detoxification process |
Experiment |
Inclusion rate |
Results |
Reference |
Brazil |
Mixed-breed castrated male sheep (56 kg) |
40 g/kg Ca(OH)2, 18h and 5h 60°C |
TMR including 60% maize silage and concentrate with 15% SBM or replaced with expeller or solvent-extracted DCC OR UCC; 21 d |
15% in TMR |
No difference in DMI (although DMI of DCC tends to be higher than for UCC) and no difference in DMD but CP digestibility tends to be higher with DCC |
Oliveira et al., 2010 |
Brazil |
Sheep 22.7 kg and 60 kg |
60 g/kg Ca(OH)2, 24h and 12h sun-dried |
TMR including 40% Cenchrus ciliaris hay + 60% conc with SBM or DCC; 20 d |
0, 4.7, 8.5 or 13.3% in TMR |
No health problem and good rumen environment |
Menezes et al., 2012 |
Brazil |
Crossbred Morada Nova male lambs (18.7 kg) |
Autoclaving, 15 psi, 123°C, 60 min |
TMR with 50% Bermuda grass hay and 50 concentrate including SBM or DCC, 60-100 d |
0, 5.1, 10.8 or 16.8% in TMR |
ADG decreases with increasing DCC level (from 197 to 130 g/d); carcass yield also decreases with DCC level and in both cases more with total replacement of SBM with DCC (16.8%); DCC can replace SBM up to 67% or 10.8% in this TMR |
Pompeu et al., 2012 |
Brazil |
Crossbred Morada Nova female and male lambs (19.8 kg) |
Autoclaving, 15 psi, 60 min; 60 g/kg CaCO3; 60 g/kg CaHPO4, 8h, sun-dried; 10 g/kg urea; 7 d, sun-dried |
TMR with 50% Bermuda grass hay and 50 concentrate including SBM or DCC, 21 d |
7.94% in TMR |
No difference in DMI (4.21 to 4.45 kg/100 kg BW) or DMD (66 to 68%); according to the treatment, nitrogen balance is slightly different |
Furtado et al., 2012; 2015 |
Brazil |
Crossbred lambs (20 kg) |
60 g/kg Ca(OH)2 |
TMR with 60% maize silage and 40 concentrate including SBM or DCC (wet or dried), 70 d |
9 or 18% in TMR |
No difference of DMI, DMD or ADG between DCC and SBM; DMI is higher with 18% than 9% but DMD is not different; no difference in carcass characteristics |
Gionbelli et al., 2014 |
Brazil |
Crossbred Santa Inês × Morada Nova ewes (33 kg) mating, gestation up to weaning |
CaO |
DCC replaced 0 or100% SBM in diet based on Guinea grass hay and concentrate, 290 d |
14.5% in concentrate |
DCC had no effect on fertility (83 to 85%) or prolificacy or BW at birth. No effect on lamb growth and BW at weaning |
Silva et al., 2014 |
Brazil |
Santa Ines male lambs (4-6 mo, 26 kg) |
40 g/kg Ca(OH)2, 12h, 48h sun-dried |
DCC replaced 0 to 100% SBM in TMR including 50% Guinea grass hay, 72 d |
0, 6.75, 13.5, 20.25 or 27% in TMR |
No difference in DMI with increasing levels (28.6 to 30.2 g/kg BW) but DMD decrease from 68% to 53% with increasing DCC level and simultaneously with increasing indigestible NDF and ADF; ADG is not different (140 to 170 g/d) |
Nicory et al., 2015a; Nicory et al., 2015b |
Brazil |
Cross bred Santa Ines male lambs (5 mo, 19.8 kg) |
Autoclaving at 15 psi, 60 min |
DCC replaced 0 or 100% SBM in TMR including 50% Guinea grass hay, 72 d |
0 or 12% in TMR |
No difference in DMI (0.96 vs 0.99 kg/d) or DMD (70 vs 69%); ADG is not different (190 vs 217 g/d) but hot and cold carcass and some component of the carcass were lower than with SBM |
Alves et al., 2016 |
Brazil |
Male lambs (10 mo, 21.7 kg) |
60 g/kg Ca(OH)2, 24h, 12h sun-dried |
DCC replaced 0 to 45% SBM in TMR including 40% Guinea grass hay, 80 d |
0, 4.7, 8.5 or 13.37% in TMR |
With increasing levels of DCC, no difference in DMI (28 to 32.2 g/kg BW) and DMD (64.8 to 69%); ADG is not different (153 to 166 g/d); hot and cold carcass were lower for the higher level (46.7 and 45.3% vs 49.6 and 48.5%) but no differences for the component of the carcass |
Menezes et al., 2016 |
Brazil |
Santa Ines male lambs (10 mo, 21.7 kg) |
60 g/kg of CaO 12h, 72h sun-dried |
DCC replaced 0 to 100% SBM in TMR including 60% sugarcane silage, 84 d |
0, 7.05, 14.12 or 20.9% in TMR |
No difference in DMI (859 to 910 g/d) and no differnce in feeding behaviour |
Oliveira et al., 2016 |
Brazil |
Crossbred Santa Ines male lambs (10 mo, 25.6 kg) |
10 g/kg CaO, autoclaved at 15 psi 30 min |
DCC replaced 0 to 100% SBM in TMR including 50% Guinea grass hay, 65 d |
0, 10, 20 or 30% in TMR |
DMI (1.13 to 1.26 kg/d or 38.8 to 41.9 g/kg BW) is not different between DCC levels; but DMD decreases with increasing levels particularly with the highest (from 65.5% to 55.6%), and ADG tends to decrease with the higher level (146 vs 173-189 g/d); no difference in feeding behavior |
Borja et al., 2017 |
Brazil |
Crossbred Morada Nova female and male lambs (7 mo, 18.7 kg) |
Autoclaving, 15 psi, 123°C, 60 min; 60 g/kg CaCO3; 60 g/kg CaHPO4, 8h, sun-dried; 10 g/kg urea, 7d, sun-dried |
TMR with 49.3% Bermuda grass hay and 50.7% concentrate including SBM or DCC, 70 days |
8.1% in TMR |
No difference in DMI (38 to 42 g/kg BW); ADG was highest for (149-156 g/d) for autoclaved and CaHPO4-treated DCC and the lowest (115-117 g/d) for UCC and urea-treated DCC |
Gomes et al., 2017 |
Brazil |
Dorper × Santa Ines male lambs (3 mo, 20.1 kg) |
10 g/kg of Ca(OH)2 |
DCC replacing 0 or 67% SBM in TMR including 50% Guinea grass hay, 106 d |
8% in TMR |
Lower level of polyunsaturated fatty acids in muscles |
Wanderley et al., 2018 |
India |
Crossbred adult Mandya male (24.5 kg) |
Sieved, ground and 4% lime and 3-4d sun-dried |
TMR including 65% Eleucine straw + 35% conc with SBM or UCC or DCC; 150 d |
12.3% COC or 12.3 DCC in place of SBM in TMR |
No difference in DMI or DMD; no difference with ADG or carcass characteristics |
Gowda et al., 2009 |
India |
Lamb (3-4 mo) |
Salt |
DCC compared to groundnut oil cake in concentrate + Rhodes grass hay ad libitum, 168 d |
25% in the concentrate |
No difference of DMI (562 vs 573 g/d), DMD or ADG (61.7 vs 61.5 g/d) between groundnut cake and DCC; true digestible nitrogen was lower for DCC (54.8%) than for groundnut cake (62.1%) |
Anandharaj et al., 2015 |
Goats
When adult at maintenance or lactating does or growing kids are fed with diets containing detoxified castor oil cake up to about 20% in the total diet, there are no adverse effects and milk yield or daily weight gain are not different to those obtained with diets based on soybean meal or groundnut cake.
Feeding trials with goats
DCC: detoxified castor oil cake; UCC: untreated castor oil cake; SBM: soybean meal; TMR: total mixed ration; DMI: dry matter intake; DMD: dry matter digestibility; MY: milk yied; ADG: average daily gain
Country |
Breed |
Detoxification process |
Experiment |
Inclusion rate |
Results |
Reference |
Brazil |
Crossbred female (44.8 mo, 42.3 kg) maintenance |
60 g/kg CaCO3, 12-18h and dried |
DCC replacing 100% SBM in diet based on Bermuda grass hay and concentrate |
15% in the concentrate |
No difference in carcass characteristics and blood metabolites |
Oliveira et al., 2013 |
Brazil |
Mixed breed kids (9.5 mo, 21.3 kg) |
|
DCC replacing 100% SBM in diet based on Bermuda grass hay and concentrate |
15% in the concentrate |
No difference in carcass characteristics and blood metabolites |
Oliveira et al., 2015 |
Brazil |
Mixed breed does (28 mo, 33.3 kg) from mating to 60 d pregnancy |
60 g/kg CaCO3, 12-18h and dried |
UCC or DCC replacing 0 or 100% SBM in TMR based on 70% Guinea grass hay and 30% concentrate, 70 d |
12.9% UCC or 14.5% DCC in TMR |
UCC or DCC had no effect on fertility (80 to 88.2%) or prolificacy or early fetus development |
Silva et al., 2015 |
Brazil |
Boer × Anglo Nubian castrated kids (4 mo, 20 kg) |
40 g/kg CaO, 12h and 48h sun-dried |
DCC replacing 0 or 100% SBM in TMR including 50% Bermuda grass hay, 75 d |
0, 10, 20 or 30% in TMR |
DMI and DMD decrease with increasing levels of DCC (0.73 to 0.46 kg/d and 60.6 to 44.7%); consequently, ADG decrease (99 to 37 g/d) and all carcass characteristics also with increasing levels of DCC; no effects on feeding behavior |
Palmieri et al., 2016; Palmieri et al., 2017 |
Brazil |
Saanen and Anglo-nubian (16.2 kg) |
90 g/kg of Ca(OH)2 or 60 g/kg NaOH |
DCC replacing 100% SBM in TMR including Bermuda grass hay (36 to 43%) ~ 240 days |
8.3% in TMR |
DMI is lower for DCC (0.96-1.01 kg) than for SBM (1.12 kg); feeding behavior is linked to the DMI; |
Araujo et al., 2018 |
Brazil |
Alpine (60 days in milk, 44.3 kg) |
60 g/kg of Ca(OH)2 12h, 72h sun-dried |
DCC replacing 0 to 100% SBM in TMR including Bermuda grass hay (50%), 20 d |
0, 2.5, 5.0 or 7.5% in TMR |
No effect on DMI (4.02 to 4.26% BW), DMD (63.9 to 67.5%) or feeding behavior; no effect on MY (1.05 to 1.27 kg/d) or milk composition |
Lima et al., 2020 |
India |
kis (3-4 mo) |
40 g/kg CaCO3 or 20 g/kg salt |
DCC replacing groundnut cake into a concentrate plus finger millet straw ad libitum, 260 d |
data not available |
DMI is higher with DCC than with groundnut cake but DMD is lower; no difference in ADG |
Nagesh et al., 2017 |
Castor seed hulls
Castor seed hulls can be used safely but have a low nutritive value. They can replace part of a low quality hay, particularly when there is forage scarcity or when hay price is high.
Sheep
In Brazil, castor bean hulls were used to replace (33, 66 and 100%) Bermuda grass hay in a low quality diet based on cactus forage used to feed fattening lambs (de Andrade et al., 2013; Urbano et al., 2013a; Urbano et al., 2013b, Urbano et al., 2012). The control diet provided 400 g DM/d cactus forage, 300 g DM/d Tifton hay, 285 g DM/d concentrate, and 15 g. Castor hulls could replace up to 66% hay without altering DM intake, DM digestibility, daily weight gain and carcass composition (de Andrade et al., 2013; Urbano et al., 2012). When castor hulls replaced 100% of cactus hay, all parameters significantly decreased (de Andrade et al., 2013). Hot and cold carcass weight, carcass composition, slaughter weight, all retail cuts and the longissimus dorsi muscle, decreased significantly with inclusion of castor plant hulls. There was also a linear decrease of the perimeters of the thorax, leg and rump and of the carcass compactness index (Urbano et al., 2013a). Increasing the level of castor hulls in the lamb diets altered the colour of the meat and the cooking losses but it had no effect on organoleptic properties of the meat which was well accepted in sensory evaluation (Urbano et al., 2013b).
Goats
In dairy goats, castor bean hulls could replace hay up to 33% in a complete diet offered to 45 kg dairy goats without any significant changes in milk yield or milk composition except for fat content which increased. With higher substitution levels (67 or 100%) milk yield significantly decreased, fat content still increased and fatty acid profile was modified (Santos et al., 2011).