Establishment
Mulato and Mulato II are apomictic hybrids, so they are genetically stable after release and do not segregate from one generation to the next. They are usually established by seed, although vegetative propagation with rooted stems or cuttings is possible (Argel et al., 2006; Argel et al., 2007; Guiot et al., 2003). For Mulato, producer-oriented recommendations in Mexico used about 6 kg seed/ha, while other Central American and Colombian recommendations reported 3 to 5 kg/ha of high-quality seed (Guiot et al., 2003). For Mulato II, Mexican and Australian experiments used 8 kg/ha of viable pure seed, which indicates that practical seeding rates vary with seed quality, equipment and local establishment objectives (Garcia et al., 2020; Jayasinghe et al., 2022a).
Mulato seed should be placed shallowly, since sowing deeper than about 2 cm can impair emergence (Guiot et al., 2003). It has been recommended for Brachiaria hybrids to sow 4-6 kg seed/ha, up to 10 kg/ha when conditions require it, into a well-prepared seedbed; freshly harvested seed may remain dormant for several months and can require storage or acid scarification before planting. These hybrids can also be planted vegetatively from rooted slips or stolon cuttings and, under good conditions, can be lightly grazed 3-4 months after sowing (Tropical Forages, 2020). In Florida extension recommendations, commercial Mulato II seed germinates in 5-10 days in a moist, firm seedbed; seed is broadcast at about 11 kg/ha and covered with about 1.3 cm of soil (Vendramini et al., 2017). In Quintana Roo, Mexico, a 7 kg/ha seeding rate was used and Mulato reached more than 80% cover after about 150 days; at 12 weeks it had 77% cover, 25 plants/m2 and 62 cm plant height (Rubio et al., 2023).
Fertilization and soil fertility
Mulato can require maintenance fertilization because its productivity is high and the effect of fertilizer may decline within a few months (Argel et al., 2006). Mulato II responds well to nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P), and split annual applications of 100 to 150 kg N/ha and about 50 kg P/ha may be useful according to soil fertility (Argel et al., 2007).
In intensively managed Brazilian pastures, Mulato II was fertilized with high annual rates of N and potassium (K), and the resulting forage accumulation averaged 8090 kg DM/ha/year over two summer rainy seasons (Almeida et al., 2023). In a dry-land Indonesian experiment, a mixed culture with legume and horticultural plants increased Mulato CP (crude protein) from 9.7% in monoculture to 12.8% in the polyculture treatment, suggesting a role for companion crops where soil fertility and moisture are limiting (Maranatha et al., 2019). In Florida, extension recommendations use a target soil pH of 5.5-6.0 and emphasize soil testing, P and K correction and split N applications; more than about 112 kg N/ha should not be applied in a single application because of leaching and volatilization risks (Vendramini et al., 2017). Under simulated continuous stocking in Brazil, increasing N from 50 to 250 kg/ha/year increased Mulato II herbage accumulation from 7.9 to 13.4 t DM/ha/year and increased CP from 10.6% to 16.4% (Silva et al., 2016).
Grazing and cutting management
Mulato should be managed to balance yield and quality, since longer regrowth and lighter residual heights increase forage mass but also increase fiber content (NDF and ADF). In Tabasco, Mexico, the highest annual forage accumulation of Mulato was obtained with a 28-day grazing frequency, while the highest digestible dry matter and CP were obtained with 14-day grazing (Cruz-Hernandez et al., 2017).
For Mulato I under monthly cutting in irrigated northeastern Brazil, 20 to 30 cm cutting heights improved leaf number, green leaf number, leaf size and total DM production, while cutting at 10 cm reduced production and cutting around 40 cm reduced the leaf:stem ratio (Dutra et al., 2014). For Mulato II in the dry tropics of Mexico, cutting between 35 and 42 days after regrowth at a 15 cm residual height was recommended because it combined good structural traits with about 95% intercepted radiation (Garcia et al., 2020). In Florida, very frequent harvesting every 2 weeks combined with short stubble heights reduced Mulato II persistence, despite high herbage accumulation and nutritive value (Inyang et al., 2010). In Brazil, Mulato II pastures maintained at 20 cm under continuous stocking had a more favorable canopy structure and nutritive value than pastures maintained at 30 cm, and the authors recommended 20 cm average canopy height under continuous stocking (Almeida et al., 2023).
Another Brazilian continuous-stocking study found that Mulato II herbage accumulation increased from 8.5 to 13.4 t DM/ha/year as canopy height increased from 10 to 40 cm, while in vitro digestible organic matter declined from 65.2% to 58.6% and grazing efficiency declined from 65% to 54%; the authors considered about 25 cm a useful compromise (Silva et al., 2016). For rotationally stocked Mulato, a 95% light-interception target corresponded to about 30 cm pre-grazing height, while maximum light interception corresponded to about 40 cm; the 95% target maintained more leaves and less stem and dead material (Silveira et al., 2016). A later analysis of the same Mulato system reported higher forage accumulation when grazing was initiated at 95% light interception rather than at maximum light interception, about 160 versus 120 kg DM/ha/day, because stem growth and senescence were better controlled (Rodrigues et al., 2024).
In Florida, Mulato II had declining CP and in vitro digestible organic matter as grazing interval increased from 2 to 6 weeks, while ground cover increased; regrowth intervals shorter than 3 weeks should be avoided to maintain hybrid Brachiaria stands (Vendramini et al., 2014). Florida extension guidance recommends rotational grazing for Mulato II, with a target grazing stubble height of 15-25 cm (Vendramini et al., 2017).
During establishment in semi-arid Rwanda, Mulato II reached its highest organic matter digestibility (OMD) and metabolizable energy (ME) values at 90 days after planting, but its CP declined from 14.7% at 60 days to 13.7% at 90 days and 11.4% at 120 days (Mutimura et al., 2017). Supplementation strategies can also be used to manage quality, since adding tropical kudzu to Mulato II harvested at 4 or 8 weeks of regrowth raised the mixture to about 13.3-13.4% CP in Trinidad and Tobago (Leon et al., 2023; Leon et al., 2025).
Yield
Mulato forage yield depends on site and management and has been reported at about 10 to 25 t DM/ha/year, with 17% to 20% of annual production occurring during the dry period (Argel et al., 2006). Mulato II forage yield has been reported at about 10 to 27 t DM/ha/year, with about 20% of annual production possible during the dry season (Argel et al., 2007).
In Thailand, Mulato II maintained a high leaf percentage across wet and dry seasons and no tested hybrid line consistently surpassed it for dry-season forage accumulation and leaf proportion (Hare et al., 2015). In irrigated subtropical Australia, Gatton panic produced more total above-ground biomass than Mulato II, but Mulato II produced the highest leaf mass and the lowest stem mass among the three tested grasses (Jayasinghe et al., 2022a). Under continuous stocking in the Brazilian Amazon biome, Mulato II accumulated 17.4 t DM/ha/year, about 15% more than the Brachiaria brizantha hybrid Ipypora, although Ipypora was more suitable for diversification where Mahanarva spittlebugs are a severe risk (Paraiso et al., 2019).
In North Florida, perennial Mulato II produced 11.3 t DM/ha in the 2009 clipping study, similar to Tifton 85 and more than the annual treatments, but stand recovery after winter was weaker than Tifton 85 (Vendramini et al., 2012). In a Colombian pasture-rehabilitation case study, Mulato produced 3.6-5.3 t/ha of dry green forage 95 days after sowing and 4.8-5.4 t/ha during 72 days of the low-rainfall period (Plazas, 2006). In Quintana Roo, Mexico, Mulato forage offer ranged from about 0.91 to 3.90 t DM/ha under rotational grazing, declining during the lower-rainfall months and increasing again when rainfall resumed (Rubio et al., 2023).
