Cottonseed meal is a good protein source for ruminants (Göhl, 1982). It is palatable with a nutritive value (for dehulled meals) slightly lower (85-90%) than that of soybean meal. It is among the least expensive sources of protein in some regions (NDDB, 2012; McGregor, 2000). It is for example the main source of protein for livestock in the cotton growing belt of India (NDDB, 2012). However, while gossypol is much less toxic to ruminants than to pigs and poultry, it is still recommended to limit its use to mature and non-reproductive animals, females and males, for short periods only and at relatively low inclusion rates, unless free gossypol content is known to be below the risk level. Generally, cottonseed meal can be safely included up to 15% in cattle diets (NDDB, 2012). The effect of gossypol on reproductive performance in ruminants is discussed below.
Cottonseed meal is a good protein supplement for poor quality forages and fibrous by-products because of its high protein digestibility. Association with a source of degradable energy increases the efficiency of cottonseed meal supplementation (Brown et al., 1997; Bonsi et al., 1997) since it decreases the urinary nitrogen. Indeed, most of the cottonseed meal energy comes from its fat content (for cottonseed meals with a high amount of residual oil) that, at high levels, does not contribute to the development of the rumen microbial population (Bonsi et al., 1997). Both decorticated and undecorticated cottonseed meal have a constipating effect on cattle, which is beneficial in feeds with a high molasses content (Göhl, 1982).
Dairy cattle
In the USA, under typical conditions, even high-production dairy cows can be fed cottonseed meal without adverse effects (McGregor, 2000). Cottonseed meal is a good protein source for dairy cows fed fibrous by-products (straws) or forages of low nutritive value. Generally, cottonseed meal can replace other oilseed meals (soybean, rapeseed, sunflower and groundnut) without affecting milk yield and composition. However, due to the variability of the fat, protein and gossypol content, results are sometimes contradictory. When supplementing highly digestible forages such as maize silage, cottonseed meal can replace soybean meal without detrimental effects on DM intake and milk yield when the diet protein is 16% DM, but the effect is negative when diet protein is only 13% (Coppock et al., 1987). The following table presents dairy cow trials with cottonseed meal included in the diet.
Country |
Breed |
Cottonseed meal trial |
Inclusion rate |
Results |
Reference |
Brazil |
Crossbred (525 kg) |
Substitution of up to 35% of soybean meal |
0-14% |
No differences in intake, diet DM digestibility and milk yield (13.2 -14.7 kg/d) |
Alves et al., 2010 |
Brazil |
Crossbred (525 kg) |
Substitution of up to 35% of soybean meal |
0-14% |
No differences in milk yield (13.8 -14.7 kg/d) and milk composition |
Zervoudakis et al., 2010 |
India |
Crossbred |
Substitution of 50 or 70% of sunflower meal |
5-7.5% |
No differences in intake, diet DM digestibility and milk yield (11 kg/d) at 50% substitution |
Bade et al., 2007 |
Iran |
Holstein (600 kg) |
Comparison with rapeseed meal in TMR |
24% |
No difference in DMI (23.5 kg/d), milk yield (23-24 kg/d) and fat content (3.3%). Lower diet DM digestibility (70 vs. 76%), milk protein content (2.98 vs. 3.08%) with cottonseed meal |
Maesoomi et al., 2006 |
Pakistan |
Crossbred (360 kg) |
Comparison with sunflower meal with low nutritive value grass |
25 or 40% |
No difference in milk yield (9.2-9.6 kg/d) or fat content (4.5%). Higher weight gain when cottonseed meal replaced sunflower meal |
Jabbar et al., 2008 |
Pakistan |
Nili-Ravi buffalo |
Comparison with sunflower meal with Sudan grass forage |
20 or 40% |
Higher milk yield (8.2 vs. 7.8 kg/d) and milk fat content (6.3 vs. 6.2%) when cottonseed meal was associated with sunflower meal compared to cottonseed meal alone |
Jabbar et al., 2009 |
Thailand |
Crossbred (440 kg) |
Increasing levels with straw and cassava chips |
20-30% |
No differences in milk yield (11.5 kg/d) and milk composition. |
Promkot et al., 2005 |
Mauritius |
Creole and crossbred cows |
Supplementation of sugarcane tops and roadside grass |
0.25 kg / L milk |
Higher milk yield (9 kg/d vs. 4-5 kg/d in 300 d; peak milk yield at 12 L/d). Results identical to those obtained with 0.5 kg/L of commercial feed (17% protein) |
Boodoo et al., 1990 |
TMR: total mixed ration; DMI: dry matter intake
Growing cattle
Calves are susceptible to gossypol toxicity because of their incomplete rumen development. It is recommended that concentrates for calves under 5 months old contain no more than 10-15% cottonseed meal (Göhl, 1982). Results obtained with growing calves are variable. In diets for pre- and post-weaning calves, cottonseed meal gave the same weight gains as rapeseed meal or soybean meal (Coppock et al., 1987) or slightly lower gains than soybean meal (Yazdani, 2005). In buffalo calves, cottonseed meal gave higher weight gains when compared with sunflower meal (Yunus et al., 2004). It is probable that those results are influenced by interactions in the diet (level of undegradable protein in the rumen or lignin content).
In growing heifers, steers and bulls, cottonseed meal is a valuable protein supplement and can replace other oil meals (soybean, copra or sunflower). The following table presents trials with diets including cottonseed meal for growing cattle.
Country |
Breed |
Cottonseed meal trial |
Inclusion rate |
Results |
Reference |
Iran |
Buffalo calves (86 kg) |
Comparison with soybean meal |
24% |
Lower ADG (600 vs. 700 g/d) |
Yazdani, 2005 |
Pakistan |
Buffalo calves (100 kg) |
Comparison with sunflower meal |
30% |
Higher ADG (980 vs. 330 g/d) |
Yunus et al., 2004 |
Brazil |
Growing beef heifers, crossbred (250 kg) |
Substitution for up to 100% soybean meal as a sole supplement |
1 kg/d |
No difference in ADG (542-570 g/d) |
Barros et al., 2011 |
Brazil |
Growing beef heifers, Nelore (225 kg) |
Substitution for rapeseed meal in a sorghum silage-based TMR |
20% (diet DM) |
Lower ADG (870 g/d vs. 1050 g/d), lower feed efficiency, similar dressing percentage |
Prado et al., 1999 |
Brazil |
Growing beef heifers, crossbred (300 kg) |
Inclusion in a maize silage-based TMR |
21-22% (diet DM) |
780 g/d ADG |
Prado et al., 2000 |
Brazil |
Growing dairy heifers, crossbred (180 kg) |
Comparison to soybean meal in a maize silage-based TMR |
16 and 10% (diet DM) |
690-910 g/d similar to soybean meal |
Santos et al., 2010 |
Australia |
Steers, Hereford (232 kg) |
Comparison to formaldehyde-treated sunflower meal with low quality pasture hay |
1 kg/d |
No difference in ADG (760-775 g/d) and hay DMI (5.5 kg/d) |
Hennessy et al., 1988 |
Australia |
Steers, Brahman (278 kg) |
Comparison to formaldehyde-treated sunflower meal with low quality pasture hay |
1 kg/d |
No difference in ADG (595-750 g/d) and hay DMI (5.2 kg/d) |
Hennessy et al., 1988 |
Australia |
Steers, Hereford (250 kg) |
Cottonseed meal compared to Copra meal with low quality pasture hay |
0.5 kg/d |
No difference in ADG (500-550 g/d) and hay DMI (5.2 kg/d) |
Hennessy et al., 1989 |
Mali |
Steers, Zebu (150-200 kg) |
Increasing levels of cottonseed meal with straw |
0.6 to 2.2 kg/d |
ADG increases up to 640 g/d with 1.4 kg cottonseed meal/d |
Kaasschieter et al., 1996 |
USA |
Steers, Crossbred (294 kg) |
Increasing levels of cottonseed meal in TMR |
8-32% |
Increasing cottonseed meal decreased ADG (1470 to 1320 g/d) but not carcass characteristics |
Zinn et al., 1997 |
Nigeria |
Draught bulls (285 kg) |
Used as protein supplement in a straw-based diet |
2 kg/d |
Higher daily work output and slight weight gain (17 g/d) |
Yahaya et al., 1999 |
TMR= total mixed ration; ADG= average daily gain
Sheep
Cottonseed meal can replace sesame or groundnut meal as the protein source in diets for rams with a similar daily weight gain of 76.3 g/d and a better feed conversion ratio of 0.85 (Ahmed et al., 2005). Cottonseed meal used in diets for growing lambs gave the same performance as other oilseed meals (groundnut, sesame, canola, soybean). Heat treatment (cooking) improved performance, probably due to a reduction of gossypol combined with increased rumen undegradable protein (Nagalakshmi et al., 2003). In Egypt, adding ferrous sulfate to the diet overcame the lower results observed with cottonseed fed to 6 month old lambs (Ward et al., 2008). The following table presents trials with cottonseed meal in the diets of growing sheep.
Country |
Breed |
Cottonseed meal trial |
Inclusion rate |
Results |
Reference |
Greece |
Karagouniko (15 kg) |
Comparison to sunflower meal in TMR |
20% |
No difference in ADG (200-220 g/d) |
Kandylis et al., 1999 |
Pakistan |
Afghani (34 kg) |
Comparison to soybean meal and rapeseed meal in TMR |
20% |
Slightly lower ADG (213 g/d) with cottonseed meal than with soybean or rapeseed meal (233-244 g/d) |
Khan et al., 1997 |
Pakistan |
Lambs, Fat tail salt range |
Comparison of untreated and formaldehyde-treated cottonseed meal |
40% |
Positive effect of treatment: higher ADG (185 vs. 165 g/d) and DMI (1.6 vs. 1.5 kg DM) |
Khan et al., 2000 |
Sudan |
Desert rams (28 kg) |
Comparison with sesame meal and groundnut meal |
8% |
No difference in ADG (73-88 g/d) |
Ahmed et al., 2005 |
USA |
|
Substitution for soybean meal in high concentrate diet |
20% |
No difference in ADG (180-200 g/d) |
Woods et al., 1962 |
Egypt |
Barki males (25 kg) |
Substitution for soybean meal in high concentrate diet |
30% |
Lower ADG (170 vs. 200 g/d) and diet digestibility (65 vs. 75%), attributed to gossypol |
Ward et al., 2008 |
India |
Crossbred males (8 kg) |
Comparison of raw and cooked cottonseed meal |
40% |
Higher ADG (88 vs. 79 g/d) and intake with cooked cottonseed meal |
Nagalakshmi et al., 2003 |
Goats
Cottonseed meal has been tested in the diets of dairy and meat goats with variable results, as summarized in the table below.
Country |
Breed |
Cottonseed meal trial |
Inclusion rate |
Results |
Reference |
Australia |
Dairy goats (< 2 kg/d milk) |
Cottonseed meal with molasses vs. urea-molasses supplementation with medium quality forage (10% protein) |
1.5-3% body weight |
Did not improve performance compared to urea-molasses supplementation |
Sarwiyono et al., 1992 |
Ethiopia |
Male goats, Sidama (17 kg) |
Increasing levels of cottonseed meal with low nutritive value forage (9% protein) |
200 - 400 g/d |
Increasing levels of cottonseed meal decreased forage DMI (59 to 33 g/kg W0.75), increased the digestibility of OM (65 to 75%) and protein (41 to 73%), increased ADG (10 to 60 g/d) and carcass characteristics |
Solomon et al., 2008 |
Ethiopia |
Sidama (17 kg) |
Supplementation of local hay |
250 g/d |
Supplementation decreased hay intake but not diet intake; increased the diet OM (55 to 63%) and protein (55 to 64%) digestibility, increased ADG (21 to 62 g/d) and carcass characteristics |
Alemu et al., 2010 |
Toxic effects of gossypol in ruminants
While less susceptible than monogastrics, ruminants are not immune to the toxic effects of gossypol. Its effect on erythrocyte fragility increases with duration and dose, and is age dependent: younger animals are more susceptible to gossypol toxicity than older ones (Matondi et al., 2007). Intoxication with gossypol resulted in decreased hemoglobin and increased erythrocyte fragility in dairy cows fed a high level of cottonseed meal (45% in the diet) (Coppock et al., 1987). Gossypol affects particularly the reproductive performance of ruminants, both males and females.
Males
Detrimental effects of free gossypol fed to male ruminants through cottonseed meal include histological changes in testicular tissue and lower sperm quality. Some of these effects are reversible once the diet no longer contains gossypol. The table summarizes changes noted in young bulls fed gossypol containing cottonseed meal.
Animal type |
Cottonseed meal trial |
Results |
Reference |
Yearling beef bulls |
2 months |
Histological changes in testicular tissue indicating detrimental effects to the spermatogenic tissues and associated cells. Partly reversible after cottonseed meal was eliminated from the diet for 2 months |
Arshami et al., 1988 |
Young Brahman bulls (20 months, 500 kg) |
2.75 kg/d cottonseed meal with 8.2 mg/animal/d of free gossypol for 11 weeks |
Lower normal sperm percentage after 5 weeks (49% vs. 83%) ; remained low (36-37%) up to the 11th week |
Chenoweth et al., 1994; Chenoweth et al., 2000 |
Crossbred Angus bulls |
8 mg/d/kg body weight of free gossypol for 8 weeks |
Significant increase in sperm abnormalities 28 and 56 days after gossypol feeding. The effects were reversible after 4 weeks without gossypol |
Hassan et al., 2004 |
Holstein bulls |
14 mg/d/kg body weight of free gossypol from 6 to 16 months |
Increased sperm abnormalities, decreased sperm production and libido. Alleviated by vitamin E supplementation |
Velasquez-Pereira et al., 1998 |
Young rams (< 18 months) |
12% cottonseed meal |
Higher abnormal spermatozoa (17% vs. 14%) and histological changes in testicular tissue |
Arshami et al., 1989 |
Adult male goats |
Cottonseed meal with 620 mg/kg of free gossypol for 3 months |
Lower motility of spermatozoa (77% vs. 80%) and higher percentage of abnormal spermatozoa |
Zahid et al., 2003a |
Females
Detrimental effects of free gossypol fed to female ruminants through cottonseed meal include lower conception rates, lower embryo survival and anomalies in offspring, as summarized in the table below.
Animal type |
Cottonseed meal trial |
Results |
Reference |
Lactating Nili-Ravi buffaloes |
Cottonseed meal with 1.68 g/kg of gossypol |
Lower conception rate (50 vs. 83%) than without cottonseed meal |
Akhtar et al., 1998 |
Heifers |
Cottonseed meal with 12 g/d of free gossypol for 76 days |
Lower embryo survival |
Galvao et al., 2006 |
Pregnant Brahman cows |
Cottonseed meal with free gossypol (4 g/d) from the last 3 months of pregnancy until the 4th month of lactation |
Lower beta carotene and alpha tocopherol content before calving but not later. Greater erythrocyte fragility before and after calving. Gossypol was not found in the milk, but calves born from cows fed cottonseed meal showed bone anomalies (especially males) which might have been associated with vitamin D and parathyroid hormone metabolism dysfunction |
Willard et al., 1995 |